Rapid progress in genome science and a glimpse into its potential applications have spurred observers to predict that biology will be the foremost science of the 21st Century. Technology and resources generated by the Human Genome Project and other genomic research already are having major impacts on research across the life sciences. Doubling in size in 10 years, the biotechnology industry generated 191,000 direct jobs and 535,000 indirect jobs in 2001. Revenues for that year totaled more than $20 billion directly and $28.5 billion indirectly.[54]
Some current and potential applications of genome research are as follows:-
Molecular Medicine:
Technology and resources promoted by the Human Genome Project are starting to have profound impacts on biomedical research and promise to revolutionize the wider spectrum of biological research and clinical medicine. Increasingly detailed genome maps have aided researchers seeking genes associated with dozens of genetic conditions, including myotonic dystrophy, fragile X syndrome, neurofibromatosis types 1 and 2, inherited colon cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and familial breast cancer.[55] |
Human genome project has made it easy for the researchers and doctors to
look deeply into the causes of the disease other than symptoms. New techniques
in genetics are being developed and some are already there which make quick
diagnosis of the disease and doctors can easily prescribe medicines according
to the genetic defects. There are certain tests which base on the DNA and give
quick diagnosis of the disease. Gene therapy is a technique which is being
developed for the treatment of genetic diseases in the sense that it will
replace the defected genes with the healthy ones.
Scientists are also able to determine the genetic defects at the embryonic level of child development and can describe that what type of genetic disease the child will acquire. Similarly, therapeutic drugs have been made and efficient drug delivery methods have created which target only those cells which are diseased and healthy cells remain unaffected. Certain immunotherapy techniques have been created to make the treatment of diseases more efficient.[56]
Scientists are also able to determine the genetic defects at the embryonic level of child development and can describe that what type of genetic disease the child will acquire. Similarly, therapeutic drugs have been made and efficient drug delivery methods have created which target only those cells which are diseased and healthy cells remain unaffected. Certain immunotherapy techniques have been created to make the treatment of diseases more efficient.[56]
Microbial Genomics:
|
In 1994, taking advantage of new capabilities developed by
the genome project, DOE initiated the Microbial Genome Program to sequence the
genomes of bacteria useful in energy production, environmental remediation,
toxic waste reduction, and industrial processing. A follow-on program, Genomic Science Program (GSP) builds
on data and resources from the Human Genome Project, the Microbial Genome
Program, and systems biology. GSP will accelerate understanding of dynamic
living systems for solutions to DOE mission challenges in energy and the
environment.
Despite our reliance on the inhabitants of the microbial world, we know little of their number or their nature: estimates are that less than 0.01% of all microbes have been cultivated and characterized. Microbial genome sequencing will help lay a foundation for knowledge that will ultimately benefit human health and the environment. The economy will benefit from further industrial applications of microbial capabilities.
Despite our reliance on the inhabitants of the microbial world, we know little of their number or their nature: estimates are that less than 0.01% of all microbes have been cultivated and characterized. Microbial genome sequencing will help lay a foundation for knowledge that will ultimately benefit human health and the environment. The economy will benefit from further industrial applications of microbial capabilities.
Information gleaned from the characterization of complete microbial genomes
will lead to insights into the development of such new energy-related
biotechnologies as photosynthetic systems, microbial systems that function in
extreme environments, and organisms that can metabolize readily available
renewable resources and waste material with equal facility. Expected benefits
also include development of diverse new products, processes, and test methods
that will open the door to a cleaner environment. Biomanufacturing will use
nontoxic chemicals and enzymes to reduce the cost and improve the efficiency of
industrial processes.
|
Microbial enzymes have been used to bleach paper pulp,
stone wash denim, remove lipstick from glassware, break down starch in brewing,
and coagulate milk protein for cheese production. In the health arena,
microbial sequences may help researchers find new human genes and shed light on
the disease-producing properties of pathogens.
Microbial genomics will also help pharmaceutical researchers gain a better understanding of how pathogenic microbes cause disease. Sequencing these microbes will help reveal vulnerabilities and identify new drug targets.
Gaining a deeper understanding of the microbial world also will provide insights into the strategies and limits of life on this planet. Data generated in this young program have helped scientists identify the minimum number of genes necessary for life and confirm the existence of a third major kingdom of life. Additionally, the new genetic techniques now allow us to establish more precisely the diversity of microorganisms and identify those critical to maintaining or restoring the function and integrity of large and small ecosystems; this knowledge also can be useful in monitoring and predicting environmental change. Finally, studies on microbial communities provide models for understanding biological interactions and evolutionary history.
Microbial genomics will also help pharmaceutical researchers gain a better understanding of how pathogenic microbes cause disease. Sequencing these microbes will help reveal vulnerabilities and identify new drug targets.
Gaining a deeper understanding of the microbial world also will provide insights into the strategies and limits of life on this planet. Data generated in this young program have helped scientists identify the minimum number of genes necessary for life and confirm the existence of a third major kingdom of life. Additionally, the new genetic techniques now allow us to establish more precisely the diversity of microorganisms and identify those critical to maintaining or restoring the function and integrity of large and small ecosystems; this knowledge also can be useful in monitoring and predicting environmental change. Finally, studies on microbial communities provide models for understanding biological interactions and evolutionary history.
Risk
Assessment:
Understanding the human genome will have an enormous impact on the ability to assess risks posed to individuals by exposure to toxic agents. |
Scientists know that genetic differences make some people more susceptible and
others more resistant to such agents. Far more work must be done to determine
the genetic basis of such variability. This knowledge will directly address
DOE's long-term mission to understand the effects of low-level exposures to
radiation and other energy-related agents, especially in terms of cancer risk.
Bioarchaeology, Anthropology, Evolution, and Human Migration:
|
Understanding
genomics will help us understand human evolution and the common biology we
share with all of life. Comparative genomics between humans and other organisms
such as mice already has led to similar genes associated with diseases and
traits. Further comparative studies will help determine the yet-unknown function
of thousands of other genes.
Comparing the DNA sequences of entire genomes of different microbes will provide new insights about relationships among the three kingdoms of life: archaebacteria, eukaryotes, and prokaryotes.
Comparing the DNA sequences of entire genomes of different microbes will provide new insights about relationships among the three kingdoms of life: archaebacteria, eukaryotes, and prokaryotes.
DNA Forensics (Identification):
|
Any type
of organism can be identified by examination of DNA sequences unique to that
species. Identifying individuals is less precise, although when DNA sequencing
technologies progress further, direct characterization of very large DNA
segments, and possibly even whole genomes, will become feasible and practical
and will allow precise individual identification.
To identify individuals, forensic scientists scan about 10 DNA regions that vary from person to person and use the data to create a DNA profile of that individual (sometimes called a DNA fingerprint). There is an extremely small chance that another person has the same DNA profile for a particular set of regions.
To identify individuals, forensic scientists scan about 10 DNA regions that vary from person to person and use the data to create a DNA profile of that individual (sometimes called a DNA fingerprint). There is an extremely small chance that another person has the same DNA profile for a particular set of regions.
Agriculture, Livestock Breeding, and Bioprocessing:
Understanding plant and animal genomes will allow us to create stronger, more disease-resistant plants and animals --reducing the costs of agriculture and providing consumers with more nutritious, pesticide-free foods. |
Already growers
are using bioengineered seeds to grow insect- and drought-resistant crops that
require little or no pesticide. Farmers have been able to increase outputs and
reduce waste because their crops and herds are healthier.
Alternate uses for crops such as tobacco have been found. One researcher has genetically engineered tobacco plants in his laboratory to produce a bacterial enzyme that breaks down explosives such as TNT and dinitroglycerin. Waste that would take centuries to break down in the soil can be cleaned up by simply growing these special plants in the polluted area.[54] [55]
Alternate uses for crops such as tobacco have been found. One researcher has genetically engineered tobacco plants in his laboratory to produce a bacterial enzyme that breaks down explosives such as TNT and dinitroglycerin. Waste that would take centuries to break down in the soil can be cleaned up by simply growing these special plants in the polluted area.[54] [55]
OTHERS:
Screening newborns: Each year in the United States, 4 million newborns have blood samples tested for abnormal or missing gene products. Some tests look for abnormal arrangements of the chemical bases in the gene itself, while other tests detect inborn errors of metabolism by verifying the absence of a protein that the cell needs to function normally. Alert patients that they are at risk for certain diseases: Once scientists discover which DNA sequence changes in a gene can cause disease, healthy people can be tested to see whether they risk developing certain conditions later in life. |
Predictive
assessment: Pre-symptomatic testing can predict adult-onset disorders such as
Huntington's disease. A particular mutation signals an almost certainty the
patient will develop the disease.
Risk assessment: The subject of most of the debate over gene testing, these screens are targeted to seemingly healthy people who are identified as being at high risk because of a strong family medical history for the disorder.
Risk assessment: The subject of most of the debate over gene testing, these screens are targeted to seemingly healthy people who are identified as being at high risk because of a strong family medical history for the disorder.
Prognosis:
A particular mutation can provide clues as to what course the disease will take
and whether it will progress rapidly or slowly; for example, a mutated p53 gene
may signal cancers that are likely to grow aggressively. And in cystic
fibrosis, a particular variant is predictive of a mild form of the disease
marked by chronic bronchitis.
Treatment: Up to 85% of patients' response to drugs is due to genetics, so knowing if patients carry particular mutations can help doctors to tailor therapy. For example, the drug tacrine seems to slow progression in Alzheimer's patients who do not have two copies of the gene for apolipoprotein E4, but other drugs may be more beneficial for patients who have different apolipoprotein E4 profiles.[57]
While the Human Genome Project initially may have seemed best suited for specific purposes, the results of the project's research are and will continue to enhance a wide range of fields and sciences. The benefits will continue as technology advances to address more complicated issues. From medicine to criminal justice to genealogy, the human genome project proves to be a landmark study that will revolutionize the world.[58]
Treatment: Up to 85% of patients' response to drugs is due to genetics, so knowing if patients carry particular mutations can help doctors to tailor therapy. For example, the drug tacrine seems to slow progression in Alzheimer's patients who do not have two copies of the gene for apolipoprotein E4, but other drugs may be more beneficial for patients who have different apolipoprotein E4 profiles.[57]
While the Human Genome Project initially may have seemed best suited for specific purposes, the results of the project's research are and will continue to enhance a wide range of fields and sciences. The benefits will continue as technology advances to address more complicated issues. From medicine to criminal justice to genealogy, the human genome project proves to be a landmark study that will revolutionize the world.[58]